The New American Digest

On May 29, 1453, the siege of the capital of the Byzantium Empire ended and it fell to the forces of the Ottomans. Considered the final end of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the modern age, these walls in their time were considered the finest of defensive systems. The advent of an effective use of artillery along with over-whelming force marked the end of walls as defensive structures. 1000 lb cannon balls broke through the walls, leaving entry points for the 60,000 Ottoman infantry to overcome the 7000 Byzantium defenders. The schism between the Latin and Orthodox Churches ultimately prevented western Europe help in defending the city.

Constantine XI, Byzantium emperor, placed a chain across the mouth of the Golden Horn and added 60ft wide moats along the 12 miles of ancient walls.

Sultan Mehmet II defeated the defenses: the Ottomans dragged their ships overland through Galata to bypass the chain barrier and used heavy artillery to open breaches in the wall.

“Everywhere there was misfortune, everyone was touched by pain. There were lamentations and weeping in every house, screaming in the crossroads, and sorrow in all churches; the groaning of grown men and the shrieking of women accompanied looting, enslavement, separation, and rape.“

A Byzantine survivor:

“On the third day after the fall of our city, the Sultan celebrated his victory with a great, joyful triumph. He issued a proclamation: the citizens of all ages who had managed to escape detection were to leave their hiding places throughout the city and come out into the open, as they were to remain free and no question would be asked. He further declared the restoration of houses and property to those who had abandoned our city before the siege. If they returned home, they would be treated according to their rank and religion, as if nothing had changed.“

The city wasn’t officially named Istanbul until 1930 after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the formation of the Turkish Republic.

Scattered throughout the dry country, these windmills stand alone, pumping water into stock tanks … or standing broken and discarded as the homesteaders and ranchers moved on.

The Aeromotor Company began experimenting with wind engines in 1883 and sold its first 24 all-metal windmills in 1888, selling over 20,000 by 1892. Through many changes in operations, names, and ownership, the company still exists, owned by a consortium of ranchers in Texas – having reverted back to its original name.

In 1890, the factory consisted of one large building. Sales were so great that by 1892, the factory had expanded to three buildings, the newest one-story building covering an acre.

By 1904, an 8ft mill cost $25 and a 20ft mill, $300 – but the mills required weekly maintenance. By 1915, an automatic oiler was developed that reduced maintenance to a yearly task rather than weekly.

The owner of the company, LaVerne Noyes, established university scholarships for veterans of WWI, primarily at Univ of Chicago and Iowa State. He died in 1919, leaving the company to a taxable trust. The scholarships are still available.

So are the windmills.

Today (2024 catalog), a basic 8ft windmill on a 21 ft tower weighs 795 lbs and costs just about $8600 and is of the same basic design as the 1888 windmill.

How it’s made:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=A0sc6INKmmc